What are Roman numerals?

Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome. They use combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet (I, V, X, L, C, D, M) to represent numbers.

How do Roman numerals work?

Roman numerals follow these basic principles:

• Letters are usually written from largest to smallest, left to right
• When a smaller numeral appears before a larger one, it's subtracted (e.g., IV = 4)
• When a smaller numeral appears after a larger one, it's added (e.g., VI = 6)
• No more than three consecutive identical numerals (e.g., III = 3, but not IIII)

What's the history of Roman numerals?

Roman numerals developed around 500 BCE and were the standard way of writing numbers in Europe for over 1000 years. They're still used today for clock faces, book chapters, movie sequels, and important events like the Super Bowl.

Why is the maximum 3999?

Traditional Roman numerals can only represent numbers up to 3999 (MMMCMXCIX). For larger numbers, the Romans used a bar over numerals to multiply by 1000, but this notation isn't standardized in modern usage.

Common examples of Roman numerals

• Years: MMXXIV (2024), MCMXC (1990), MM (2000)
• Clock numbers: I through XII
• Book chapters: Chapter VII, Chapter XIX
• Movie sequels: Star Wars Episode IV, Rocky III
• Events: Super Bowl LVIII, World War II

Tips for reading Roman numerals

• Break the numeral into groups (e.g., MCMXCIV = M + CM + XC + IV)
• Look for subtraction pairs (IV, IX, XL, XC, CD, CM)
• Add up each group's value (1000 + 900 + 90 + 4 = 1994)
• Practice with years, as they're the most common use